ZABTI SYSTEM /DAHSHALA SYSTEM

•Todar mal, who was appointed Akbar's finance minister ( diwan-i- ashraf) in 1582,set up a regulation or standard system of revenue administration known as zabti System. 

• In Mughal India, it was the most important method of assessment.

• The origin of this practice is traced to Sher Shah.

• During Akbar's reign, the system was revised a number times before it took the final shape. 

• Sher Shah had established a rai or per bigha yield for land which were under continuous cultivation (polaj), or those land which very rarely allowed to lie fallow (parauti).

•The rai was based on three rates, representing good, middling and low yields and one third of the sum of these was appropriated as land revenue.

• Akbar adopted Sher Shah's rai.

• Akbar introduced his so-called karori experiment and appointed karoris all over North India in 1574-75.

• The entire jagir was converted into khalisa.

• Under karori experiment, measurement of all provinces took place.

• Bamboo rods with iron rings called tanab were used instead of hempen ropes. On the basis of productivity and prices prevailing in different regions they were divided for revenue purposes into dastur circles.

• The rates of assessment in cash for each crop in every dastur was decided, and the demand was fixed accordingly.

• On the basis of the information provided by the karoris regarding the actual produce, local prices, productivity, etc. in 1580, Akbar instituted a new system Ain dahsala, where the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten years were calculated.

• One-third of the average produce was the state's minimum share. 

• Main features of the zabti system:

• measurement of land was essential;

• fixed cash revenue rates known as dastur ul amal or dastur for each crop. all the collection was made in cash.

Merits of Zabti system:

• measurement could always be rechecked. 

• due to fixed dasturs, local officials could not use their discretion; and

• with fixing the permanent dastur, the uncertainties and fluctuation in levying the land revenue demand were greatly reduced.

Demerits of Zabti system:

• It could not be applied if the quality of the soil was not uniform; If the yield was uncertain, this method was disadvantageous to peasants because risk were borne by them alone.

 • Abul Fazl says, "If the peasant does not have the strength to bear zabt the practice of taking a third of the crop as revenue is followed."

• This was an expensive method as a cess of one dam per bigha known as zabitana was given to meet the costs towards the maintenance of the measuring party; Much fraud could be practised in recording the measurement. 

• Zabti system was adopted only in the core region of the Empire. The main provinces covered under zabti were Delhi, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Lahore and Multan.

• Even in these zabti provinces, other methods of assessment were also practiced, depending on the circumstances of the area.

Read More

TRIPS AGREEMENT

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO.

The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the multilateral trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive multilateral agreement on intellectual property to date. In 2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all."

      Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering authors and other copyright holders, as well as holders of related rights, namely performers, sound recording producers and broadcasting organisations; geographical indications; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout-designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade names and undisclosed or confidential information. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. 

Objectives of TRIPS

The protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights should contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.

TRIPS Significance

The TRIPS Agreement makes protection of intellectual property rights an integral part of the multilateral trading system, as embodied in the WTO. The agreement is often termed one of the three “pillars” of the WTO, the other two being trade in goods (the traditional domain of the GATT) and trade in services.

Before TRIPS, the extent of protection and enforcement of IP rights varied widely across nations and as intellectual property became more important in trade, these differences became a source of tension in international economic relations. Therefore, it was considered prudent to have new trade rules for IP rights in order to have more order and predictability, and also to settle disputes in an orderly manner.

What are Intellectual Property Rights?

Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are legal rights that protect these creations. In contrast to rights over tangible property, IP rights give their owners rights to exclude others from making use of their creations only for a limited period. IP rights entitle the owners to receive a royalty or any sort of financial compensation or payment when another person uses their creations.

What is Intellectual Property?

“Intellectual property” refers to creations of the mind. These creations can take many different forms, such as artistic expressions, signs, symbols and names used in commerce, designs and inventions. 

Read More

Geographical Indication (GI Tags)

A geographical indication (GI) is a name or sign used on products which corresponds to a specific geographical location or origin (e.g., a town, region, or country). The use of a geographical indication, as an indication of the product's source, acts as a certification that the product possesses certain qualities, is made according to traditional methods, or enjoys a good reputation due to its geographical origin.

Using Geographical Indications may be regarded as a certification that the particular product is produced as per traditional methods, has certain specific qualities, or has a particular reputation because of its geographical origin.

Geographical indications are typically used for wine and spirit drinks, foodstuffs, agricultural products, handicrafts, and industrial products.

GI Tag ensures that none other than those registered as authorized users are allowed to use the popular product name. In order to function as a GI, a sign must identify a product as originating in a given place. 

Importance of GI tag

The importance of GI entails the rights of GI holders to use indication for the purpose of meeting the quality standards and its originality of the place. The right of holders is acquired when the applicant obtains a right over a sign that constitutes GI subject to condition and limitation as specified in the registration. The right to prevent third parties who do not conform to the prescribed quality standard or produce products with the same technique as mandated for meeting the standard of GI.

Other facts

•India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection)Act, 1999 has come into force with effect from 15th September 2003.

•Darjeeling Tea was the first Indian product to get the geographical indication tag. In 2004, the famous beverage got recognition.

Read More

What is Build Back Better World or B3W?

Build Back Better World or B3W is an initiative undertaken by G7 countries. Launched in 2021, the initiative is designed to counter China's strategic influence by providing an alternative to the Belt and Road Initiative for the infrastructural development of the low and middle income countries. Led by the United States, the G7 countries will provide around $40 trillion to the developing countries by 2035 under the plan. The funds will be generated from the private sector and will be invested to improve conditions in "climate, health and health security, digital technology, and gender equity and equality".

Read More

Important Indus Valley Sites and Archaeological Discoveries

The Indus Valley Civilization covered parts of Sind, Baluchistan, Afganistan, West Punjab, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Maharashtra.

It’s not easy to connect the archaeological finds with their respective Harappan cities. But in exams questions are repeatedly asked from this topic.

This post is a humble attempt to compile the important Indus Valley Sites and the archaeological discoveries from there. Readers may note that a few of the major sites are already covered in our notes on the features of Indus Valley Civilization.

Harappa

1. Cemetery H & R37.
2. Coffin burial.
3. Granary outside the fort.
4. Phallus worship.
5. Graveyard.
6. Mother goddess.

Mohenjo-Daro

1. Prepared Garments.
2. Temple-like Palace.
3. Pashupati seal.
4. Statue of a dancing girl.
5. Ivory weight balance.
6. The Great Bath.
7. The Great Granary.
8. Priest-king statue.

Kalibangan

1. Lower fortified town.
2. Fire Altar.
3. Boustrophedon style.
4. Wooden drainage.
5. Copper Ox.
6. Evidence of earthquake.
7. Wooden plough.
8. Camel’s bone.

Lothal

1. Port Town.
2. Evidence of Rice.
3. Fire Altar.
4. Graveyard.
5. Ivory weight balance.
6. Copper dog.

Rangpur

1. Evidence of Rice.

Surkotada

1. Horse bone.
2. Stone covered grave.

Malavan

1. Canals.

Chanhudaro

1. Bangle factory.
2. Inkpot.
3. The only city without citadel.
4. Carts with a seated driver.

Balakot

1. Bangle factory.

Daimabad

1. Bronze Buffalo.

Amri

1. Actual remains of Rhinoceros.

Alamgirpur

1. Impression of cloth on a trough.

Ropar

1. Buildings made of stone and soil.
2. The dog buried with humans.
3. One inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs.
4. Oval pit burials.

Banawali

1. Oval shaped settlement.
2. The only city with radial streets.
3. Toy plough.
4. The largest number of barley grains.

Dholavira

1. Only site to be divided into three parts.
2. Giant water reservoir.
3. Unique water harnessing system.
4. Dams.
5. Embankments.
6. A stadium.
7. Rock – cut architecture.

Read More