ADVENT OF EUROPEANS IN INDIA

Portuguese

• Vasco-da-Gama reached the port of Calicut in 1498 during the reign of king Zamorin (Hindu ruler of Calicut).

• Settlements: Daman, Salsette, Chaul, and Bombay (West coast), San Thome (near Madras) and at Hooghly

.

• Alfonso de Albuquerque, the second Governor of India (first being Fransisco de Almeida) arrived in 1509 and captured Goa in AD 1510.

Dutch

• Dutch East India Company was formed in AD 1602.

• Dutch were defeated by English at the Battle of Bedara in AD 1759 and as per the agreement, the Dutch gained the control over Indonesia and the British over India, Sri Lanka and Malaya Settlements. 

• They set-up their first factory at Masulipatnam in 1605. 

• Their other factories were at Pulicat, Chinsura, Patna, Balasore, Naga pattanam, Cochin, Surat, Karikal, and Kasimbazar.

English

• The English East India Company was formed in 1599 under a charter granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. Jahangir granted a Farman to Captain William Hawkins permitting the English to erect a factory at Surat (1613).

• In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe succeeded in getting an imperial farman to trade and establish a factory in all parts of the Mughal Empire by ruler Jahangir.

• In 1690, a factory was established at Suttanati by Jab Charnock. In 1698, following the acquisition of zamindari of three villages of Suttanati, Kalikata and Govindpur, the city of Calcutta was founded.

• Fort William was set-up in 1700.

• In 1717, John Surman obtained a farman from Farrukhsiyar, which gave large concessions to the company. This farman has been called the Magna Carta of the Company.

• Battle of Plassey (1757) English defeated Sirajuddaula, the Nawab of Bengal.

• Battle of Buxar (1764) Captain Munro defeated joint forces of Mir Qasim (Bengal), Shujauddaula (Awadh) and Shah Alam II (Mughals). 

Danes

• The Danish East India Company was formed in 1616.

• The Danish colony 'Tranquebar' was established on the Southern Coromandel coast of India.

• Settlements Serampur (Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) sold their settlements to the English in 1845.

French

• The French East India Company was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664. The First French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668.

• A factory at Masulipatnam was set-up in 1669.

• French were defeated by English in the Battle of Wandiwash (1760).

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Preamble to the Indian Constitution

The preamble to the Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose, principles and philosophy of the constitution. Preamble gives an idea about the following : (1) the source of the constitution, (2) nature of Indian state (3) a statement of its objectives and (4) the date of its adoption

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;

and to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949,DO HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

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RENAISSANCE AND ITS CAUSES

 RENAISSANCE

Renaissance is the cultural movement that started in Italy (with Florence identified as the initial home of the Renaissance) in 15th Century. It then spread to United Kingdom, France, Germany etc. It is one of the most important events in history because it affected every aspect of human Life.

The renaissance originated in Italy and spread to other parts of Europe. The movement did not begin overnight. The causes of it lay in the middle ages. Many believe that it started in 1453, when Turks captured Constantinople. The Greek scholars of the city ran away, carrying their texts. They went to Italy and enlightened the people with a sense of inquiry. This was the immediate cause of the renaissance, but ideas were already gaining root. The event hastened the movement.

The literary meaning of the term renaissance is rebirth. The period brought about the revival of interest in Greek and Roman literature and art. The people of the times wanted to revive the culture by adding their own ideas. They felt that ancient Greek and Roman traditions were rich in cultural heritage. The medieval ideas which dominated the society were considered backward and were rejected by the leaders of renaissance e.g. church which controlled the society. Man was a slave in the hands of religion. The renaissance put in a sense of inquiry. Thus there arose dogmatism. rationalism. 

The main theme of the movement was the ideal of Humanism. It development of human means the personality, regarding man as the centre of activity. Earlier God was the centre of all activities and man was just a creature waiting for salvation. Artists turned attention to draw and sketch human beings.

The movement produced a spirit of curiosity. Man was told not to accept philosophy and theology simply because he was told to. He was told to be curious about all things. He was encouraged to study more about himself and his surroundings. The period encouraged original thinking and study of texts including the Bible. However the emphasis was on revival of secular literature.

It was known that many ancient classics of Greece and Rome were lost in the dark period. The leaders set themselves the task to rediscover, decipher and translate the texts. Thus literature and art was wanted for the sake of art and not for religion.

There is no doubt that the movement was an urban phenomenon. It was the movement of classes and not masses. The leaders were intellectuals. Most of them were from the bourgeoisie class, who had some time to spend on literature and art. Though it's a fact that the renaissance brought in a new era and changed the entire culture, the changes were not sudden. It was a gradual process. In the height of the movement too, few accepted the changes. However, gradually as the ideas spread to newer lands, they engulfed the entire human kind.

The Renaissance has been described as ending the medieval era and heralding the start of the modern age.

Causes of Renaissance-

1- Decline of Feudalism:

The one major factor which played a dominant role in the decline of feudalism was the rise of the middle class comprising of traders and businessmen. These middle classes provided the kings necessary money for the maintenance of armies and thereby enabled them to reduce their dependence on the feudal lords.

Further, due to development of trade and commerce during this period, there was great increase in prices which greatly benefited the craftsmen, merchants and cultivators. As the feudal lords could not in­crease their rents they were forced to borrow to maintain themselves. As the feudal lords were not able to repay the debts they were often obliged to sell off their lands. This gave a serious set back to feudalism and manorial life. All this paved the way for the Renaissance.

2. Impact of the Crusades:

The Crusades or the wars between the Christians and Muslims which were fought between 11th and 14th century and which ultimately resulted in the victory of the Muslims also provided an impetus to Renaissance.As a result of the Crusades the Western scholars came in contact with the East which was more civilized and polished than the Christians. A number of Western scholars went to the universities of Cairo, Kufa and Cardona etc and learnt many new ideas, which they subsequently spread in Europe.

3. Decline in the influence of Church:

The Church which dominated the medieval society suffered a set back in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The temporal power of the Church was challenged by a number of strong monarchs. In 1296 A.D. King Philip IV of France got the Pope arrested and made him a prisoner.

This gave a serious blow to the power and prestige of the Pope. Even the common people lost faith in Church due to rise of numerous rituals. They preferred to pay greater attention to the present life rather than the life after death. No wonder they did not find the medieval ideals of other worldliness and asceticism satisfactory.

4. Wealth and Prosperity:

The Crusades provided an impetus to trade and commerce in the 12th and 13th centuries and the trade between eastern and western countries greatly increased. This greatly contributed to the wealth and prosperity of the people in Italy and a wealthy class of traders, bankers and manufacturers emerged. This class tried to display its wealth and bolster its social importance by patronizing artists and scholars.

They provided security and protection to the artists and encour­aged them to produce outstanding works. With a view to attain refine­ment in every aspect of their culture, these wealthy classes tried to learn the rules of correct social behavior by reading etiquette books. The open­ing of the new lands for travel to the Europeans also greatly contributed to the broadening of the outlook and liberalization of ideas.

5. Invention of Printing Press and Paper:The discovery of the printing press in 1454 by Gutenberg of Mainz also greatly assisted in the revival of the learning. Soon thereafter a number of printers appeared in Italy. The printing press was introduced in England by Caxton in 1477.

The inven­tion of the printing press and availability of the paper in abundance at reasonable price greatly contributed to the popularity of the books and gave a fillip to renaissance. Prof. Edith Sichel highlights the role of the printing in Renaissance thus, “Printing remained the source of irrigation which fertilized the world of intelligence.”

Without printing press knowledge could not have spread for and wide. Earlier, the books were produced by monastic copyist or printed by presses set up in cloisters and only those books reached the general public which were approved by the Church. Under changed conditions the print­ing of books passed beyond ecclesiastical control and it became possible disseminate knowledge and opinions which were not acceptable to the , Church.

6. Fall of Constantinople:

The Fall of Constantinople, in the hands of the Turks in 1453 A.D. provided an indirect impetus to Renaissance. A large number of Greek and Roman scholars who were working in the libraries at Constantinople, fled to different parts of Europe with valuable literature. They began teaching Greek and Latin in various European countries.

As passionate admirers of classical writers they searched for lost manuscripts of Greek and Latin literature and discovered many works which had been hitherto ignored and neglected. They collected the writ­ings of classical writers studied and edited them and later on printed their original editions.

One prominent scholar who studied works of ancient writers and edited them was Erasmus. He asserted that the priests and theologians had distorted the simple teachings of Jesus. He published a fresh edition of New Testament in Greek to clarify the basic teachings of Christianity. Erasmus was against intolerance and persecution and advo­cated principles of intelligence, open-mindedness and goodwill towards all men.

7. Role of Progressive Rulers and Nobles:

Finally, a host of progressive rulers, Popes and nobles also played an important role in the ushering of the renaissance. Rulers like Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England, Charles V of Spain, Christian II of Denmark etc. extended patronage to scholars and men of learning and greatly contributed to the revival of Greeco-Roman classics.

Likewise Popes like Nicholas V, and Leo X greatly contributed to renaissance by encouraging study of ancient Greek and Roman classical and patronizing classical art, sculpture, music etc. Apart from the Kings and Popes certain nobles also patronized literary men, artists and scientists and contributed towards renaissance.

For ex­ample, Medici family of Florence set up an academy in Florence which was devoted to the study and research of Platonic philosophy. This family patronized painters, artists and sculptors like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Bertoldo.

8. Geographical Voyages:

The discovery of mariner’s compass lead to large number of people taking long voyages because it was possible for them to know the exact direction in which they were sailing. The people were also able to explore the distant seas. As a result the notions about the shape and size of the world in vogue were challenged.

A little later with the discovery of telescope people were able to scan the sky and made a new beginning in the study of astronomy. They came to know about the real position of the earth in the solar system. All this knowledge went against the teachings of Church and no wonder contributed to the weaken­ing of the authority of the ecclesiastical system.

9-BLACK DEATH:

The final cause of the Renaissance was the impact of the Black Death. The Black Death is one of the most important events in Western history and is the most famous pandemic in all of human history. A pandemic is the term used to describe the spread of an infectious disease over a wide area including the entire planet. The Black Death occurred during the 14th century and ravaged human populations throughout Asia and Europe as it spread along trade routes and through trading ports. Throughout history it has also been referred to as the ‘Great Mortality’ and ‘Great Pestilence’. The death toll of the Black Death is a debated topic and different historians have offered different views on the issue. Regardless, the reported death tolls are massive with some suggesting that it resulted in the deaths of between 75 and 200 million people in Europe and Asia. These high numbers suggest that between 30% and 60% of people died due to the infectious disease. Some regions suffered more than others, but in general it is widely accepted that approximately half of Europeans died as a result of the disease. For example, it has been recorded that both Paris, France and London, England saw half of their populations succumb to the pandemic.  

In conclusion, historians have identified several causes of the Renaissance in Europe, including: increased interaction between different cultures, the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts, the emergence of humanism, different artistic and technological innovations, and the impacts of conflict and death.

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What is Pegasus Spyware?

 Pegasus Spyware

Pegasus is a spyware developed by the Israeli cyberarms firm NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The 2021 Project Pegasus revelations suggest that the current Pegasus software can exploit all recent iOS versions up to iOS 14.6.  As of 2016, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus—it is a Trojan horse that can be sent "flying through the air" to infect phones.

Why in News?

Throughout the past week, we’ve seen story after story about a company called NSO Group, and a piece of spyware called Pegasus. Some of the stories have been shocking, with allegations that fully updated smartphones can be hacked with a single text message, and reports that two women close to murdered journalist Jamal Khashoggi were among those targeted by a government agency using the spy tool.

A coalition of news outlets, including The Washington Post, Le Monde, and The Guardian is behind the reporting, and they’re calling it the Pegasus Project. The project was led by Forbidden Stories, an organization of journalists that works on stories after the original reporters have been silenced in some way. Amnesty International ran detailed forensics on 67 smartphones to look for evidence that they were targeted by Pegasus spyware — and 37 of those phones tested positive. But many crucial details still aren’t clear.

Who was being spied on?

We don’t know for sure. However, much of the reporting centers around a list containing 50,000 phone numbers, the purpose of which is unclear. The Pegasus Project analyzed the numbers on the list and linked over 1,000 of them to their owners. When it did so, it found people who should’ve been off-limits to governmental spying (based on the standards NSO says it holds its clients to): hundreds of politicians and government workers — including three presidents, 10 prime ministers, and a king — plus 189 journalists, and 85 human rights activists.

India's stand on Pegasus

In response to the finding by a global collaborative investigative project that Israeli spyware Pegasus was used to target at least 300 individuals in India, the government has claimed that all interception in India takes place lawfully. So, what are the laws covering surveillance in India?

Communication surveillance in India takes place primarily under two laws — the Telegraph Act, 1885 and the Information Technology Act, 2000. While the Telegraph Act deals with interception of calls, the IT Act was enacted to deal with surveillance of all electronic communication, following the Supreme Court’s intervention in 1996. A comprehensive data protection law to address the gaps in existing frameworks for surveillance is yet to enacted.

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ZABTI SYSTEM /DAHSHALA SYSTEM

•Todar mal, who was appointed Akbar's finance minister ( diwan-i- ashraf) in 1582,set up a regulation or standard system of revenue administration known as zabti System. 

• In Mughal India, it was the most important method of assessment.

• The origin of this practice is traced to Sher Shah.

• During Akbar's reign, the system was revised a number times before it took the final shape. 

• Sher Shah had established a rai or per bigha yield for land which were under continuous cultivation (polaj), or those land which very rarely allowed to lie fallow (parauti).

•The rai was based on three rates, representing good, middling and low yields and one third of the sum of these was appropriated as land revenue.

• Akbar adopted Sher Shah's rai.

• Akbar introduced his so-called karori experiment and appointed karoris all over North India in 1574-75.

• The entire jagir was converted into khalisa.

• Under karori experiment, measurement of all provinces took place.

• Bamboo rods with iron rings called tanab were used instead of hempen ropes. On the basis of productivity and prices prevailing in different regions they were divided for revenue purposes into dastur circles.

• The rates of assessment in cash for each crop in every dastur was decided, and the demand was fixed accordingly.

• On the basis of the information provided by the karoris regarding the actual produce, local prices, productivity, etc. in 1580, Akbar instituted a new system Ain dahsala, where the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten years were calculated.

• One-third of the average produce was the state's minimum share. 

• Main features of the zabti system:

• measurement of land was essential;

• fixed cash revenue rates known as dastur ul amal or dastur for each crop. all the collection was made in cash.

Merits of Zabti system:

• measurement could always be rechecked. 

• due to fixed dasturs, local officials could not use their discretion; and

• with fixing the permanent dastur, the uncertainties and fluctuation in levying the land revenue demand were greatly reduced.

Demerits of Zabti system:

• It could not be applied if the quality of the soil was not uniform; If the yield was uncertain, this method was disadvantageous to peasants because risk were borne by them alone.

 • Abul Fazl says, "If the peasant does not have the strength to bear zabt the practice of taking a third of the crop as revenue is followed."

• This was an expensive method as a cess of one dam per bigha known as zabitana was given to meet the costs towards the maintenance of the measuring party; Much fraud could be practised in recording the measurement. 

• Zabti system was adopted only in the core region of the Empire. The main provinces covered under zabti were Delhi, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Lahore and Multan.

• Even in these zabti provinces, other methods of assessment were also practiced, depending on the circumstances of the area.

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TRIPS AGREEMENT

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO.

The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the multilateral trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive multilateral agreement on intellectual property to date. In 2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all."

      Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering authors and other copyright holders, as well as holders of related rights, namely performers, sound recording producers and broadcasting organisations; geographical indications; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout-designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade names and undisclosed or confidential information. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. 

Objectives of TRIPS

The protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights should contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.

TRIPS Significance

The TRIPS Agreement makes protection of intellectual property rights an integral part of the multilateral trading system, as embodied in the WTO. The agreement is often termed one of the three “pillars” of the WTO, the other two being trade in goods (the traditional domain of the GATT) and trade in services.

Before TRIPS, the extent of protection and enforcement of IP rights varied widely across nations and as intellectual property became more important in trade, these differences became a source of tension in international economic relations. Therefore, it was considered prudent to have new trade rules for IP rights in order to have more order and predictability, and also to settle disputes in an orderly manner.

What are Intellectual Property Rights?

Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are legal rights that protect these creations. In contrast to rights over tangible property, IP rights give their owners rights to exclude others from making use of their creations only for a limited period. IP rights entitle the owners to receive a royalty or any sort of financial compensation or payment when another person uses their creations.

What is Intellectual Property?

“Intellectual property” refers to creations of the mind. These creations can take many different forms, such as artistic expressions, signs, symbols and names used in commerce, designs and inventions. 

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Geographical Indication (GI Tags)

A geographical indication (GI) is a name or sign used on products which corresponds to a specific geographical location or origin (e.g., a town, region, or country). The use of a geographical indication, as an indication of the product's source, acts as a certification that the product possesses certain qualities, is made according to traditional methods, or enjoys a good reputation due to its geographical origin.

Using Geographical Indications may be regarded as a certification that the particular product is produced as per traditional methods, has certain specific qualities, or has a particular reputation because of its geographical origin.

Geographical indications are typically used for wine and spirit drinks, foodstuffs, agricultural products, handicrafts, and industrial products.

GI Tag ensures that none other than those registered as authorized users are allowed to use the popular product name. In order to function as a GI, a sign must identify a product as originating in a given place. 

Importance of GI tag

The importance of GI entails the rights of GI holders to use indication for the purpose of meeting the quality standards and its originality of the place. The right of holders is acquired when the applicant obtains a right over a sign that constitutes GI subject to condition and limitation as specified in the registration. The right to prevent third parties who do not conform to the prescribed quality standard or produce products with the same technique as mandated for meeting the standard of GI.

Other facts

•India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection)Act, 1999 has come into force with effect from 15th September 2003.

•Darjeeling Tea was the first Indian product to get the geographical indication tag. In 2004, the famous beverage got recognition.

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What is Build Back Better World or B3W?

Build Back Better World or B3W is an initiative undertaken by G7 countries. Launched in 2021, the initiative is designed to counter China's strategic influence by providing an alternative to the Belt and Road Initiative for the infrastructural development of the low and middle income countries. Led by the United States, the G7 countries will provide around $40 trillion to the developing countries by 2035 under the plan. The funds will be generated from the private sector and will be invested to improve conditions in "climate, health and health security, digital technology, and gender equity and equality".

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Important Indus Valley Sites and Archaeological Discoveries

The Indus Valley Civilization covered parts of Sind, Baluchistan, Afganistan, West Punjab, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Maharashtra.

It’s not easy to connect the archaeological finds with their respective Harappan cities. But in exams questions are repeatedly asked from this topic.

This post is a humble attempt to compile the important Indus Valley Sites and the archaeological discoveries from there. Readers may note that a few of the major sites are already covered in our notes on the features of Indus Valley Civilization.

Harappa

1. Cemetery H & R37.
2. Coffin burial.
3. Granary outside the fort.
4. Phallus worship.
5. Graveyard.
6. Mother goddess.

Mohenjo-Daro

1. Prepared Garments.
2. Temple-like Palace.
3. Pashupati seal.
4. Statue of a dancing girl.
5. Ivory weight balance.
6. The Great Bath.
7. The Great Granary.
8. Priest-king statue.

Kalibangan

1. Lower fortified town.
2. Fire Altar.
3. Boustrophedon style.
4. Wooden drainage.
5. Copper Ox.
6. Evidence of earthquake.
7. Wooden plough.
8. Camel’s bone.

Lothal

1. Port Town.
2. Evidence of Rice.
3. Fire Altar.
4. Graveyard.
5. Ivory weight balance.
6. Copper dog.

Rangpur

1. Evidence of Rice.

Surkotada

1. Horse bone.
2. Stone covered grave.

Malavan

1. Canals.

Chanhudaro

1. Bangle factory.
2. Inkpot.
3. The only city without citadel.
4. Carts with a seated driver.

Balakot

1. Bangle factory.

Daimabad

1. Bronze Buffalo.

Amri

1. Actual remains of Rhinoceros.

Alamgirpur

1. Impression of cloth on a trough.

Ropar

1. Buildings made of stone and soil.
2. The dog buried with humans.
3. One inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs.
4. Oval pit burials.

Banawali

1. Oval shaped settlement.
2. The only city with radial streets.
3. Toy plough.
4. The largest number of barley grains.

Dholavira

1. Only site to be divided into three parts.
2. Giant water reservoir.
3. Unique water harnessing system.
4. Dams.
5. Embankments.
6. A stadium.
7. Rock – cut architecture.

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